Socioeconomic and Racial Discrepancies in Algebra Access, Teacher, and Learning Experiences: Findings from the American Mathematics Educator Study

Lauren Covelli, Julia Kaufman, Umut Özek

Systemic inequities in course availability, placement, teacher preparation, and instructional quality create layered barriers to advanced math access for students in high-poverty and high-minority schools. Reforms must address both access and instructional capacity to meaningfully reduce achievement gaps.

Algebra is more than just another math class. Passing it is required to access advanced coursework, which is necessary for college readiness and a wide range of careers. Yet decades of research show that access to Algebra is not distributed equally. Students in wealthier, suburban schools are far more likely to take Algebra by 8th grade, while those in high-poverty or high-minority schools often encounter barriers such as fewer course options, stricter placement policies, and less access to qualified teachers. As a result, students in under-resourced schools are less likely to reach advanced math courses in high school, limiting their opportunities for college admission, STEM careers, and long-term economic mobility.

This new study adds an important layer to what we already know. Using national survey data, the researchers reveal the differences in teacher preparation, instructional content, and classroom supports across different kinds of schools. The findings make clear that solving the Algebra access problem requires tackling both who gets in the door and what happens inside the classroom once they do.

STUDY AND METHODS

This study draws on data from the RAND American Mathematics Educator Study (AMES) administered to a nationally representative sample of K–12 public school principals and teachers in Spring 2023 and Spring 2024. This study uses survey responses from principals who reported that their school serves 8th or 9th grade and teachers who reported that they were teaching a math course in 8th or 9th grade: about 3,000 principals and 1,000 teachers across the two years. Researchers then linked survey responses from principals and teachers to school-level demographic data, enabling comparisons between high-poverty and low-poverty schools as well as schools with varying racial and ethnic compositions. The analysis focused on three dimensions of opportunity: whether schools offered Algebra I in 8th grade, how students were placed into courses, and the qualifications and practices of teachers leading those classes. 

KEY FINDINGS

1. High-poverty schools are much less likely to offer 8th-grade Algebra at all, and when they do, it is less likely to be offered to any student who wants to participate.
   • Principals in the highest-poverty schools were 12 percentage points less likely to report offering 8th-grade Algebra unconditionally and 18 percentage points more likely not to offer it at all compared to the lowest-poverty schools.
   • This means that students in high-poverty schools are both less likely to see Algebra on the schedule and, if it is offered, less likely to be allowed in the class without facing additional hurdles.
2. Placement practices vary widely by school context: in the highest-poverty schools, principals’ judgments play a larger role, while in the lowest-poverty schools, factors like parent requests, teacher recommendations, and prior grades are weighed more heavily.
   • This suggests that in lowest-poverty schools and schools with smaller shares of Black and Hispanic students, parents and teachers are either more likely to advocate for students’ math placement or their input is more likely to be taken into consideration in placement decisions. Families with more resources, time, and knowledge of the system may be more likely to push for their children to access Algebra earlier.
   • Prior course grades are not used as frequently in the highest-poverty or highest-minority schools, compared to the lowest-poverty and lowest-minority schools.
3. The highest-poverty schools are far less likely to group students into separate math courses by achievement level, a pattern that likely reflects fewer advanced course offerings in high-poverty schools.
   • Further analysis finds that principals in the lowest-poverty high schools were more than twice as likely to report that their school offers AP Calculus and 50 percent more likely to report that their school offers AP Statistics compared to principals in the highest-poverty schools.
4. Teachers in the highest-poverty schools were three times more likely to have completed an alternative certification program and twice as likely to have not completed student teaching during their preparation program.
   • This matters because studies have shown that teachers who have had strong student-teaching experiences are more effective in their first years.
   • Together, these findings suggest that students in the highest-poverty schools face a double disadvantage: they are less likely to be offered Algebra early, and when they are, they are more likely to be taught by a teacher with less formal preparation or support.
5. Classroom instruction in the highest-poverty schools is less focused on grade-level content.
   • Teachers in the highest-poverty settings were 60 percent more likely to report that they spend more than half of their classroom time addressing topics below grade level. They were also more likely to report spending time on managing classroom behavior, which limits time for rigorous Algebra instruction.
   • Together, these patterns mean that even when students in the highest-poverty schools do get access to Algebra, they may experience a version of the course that is less rigorous and more fragmented. 

IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY AND PRACTICE

1. Expand access to 8th-grade Algebra to allow more students from disadvantaged backgrounds to take the course in middle school and continue into advanced math in high school.
   • The findings in this paper suggest that differences in the availability of 8th-grade Algebra across schools are a key factor driving disparities in Algebra enrollment by students’ socioeconomic status.
2. Expanding access is only one piece of the puzzle. Without qualified teachers, strong instructional supports, and aligned high school pathways, students are less likely to succeed and advance.
3. Strengthen teacher preparation and hiring to help ensure equitable access to well-trained teachers.
   • The following could support teacher preparation:
     • Partner preparation programs with districts to align coursework, field placements, and hiring needs so candidates are trained for the contexts in which they’ll work.
     • Provide financial incentives, such as stipends, tuition reimbursement, or student loan forgiveness, for candidates who complete high-quality preparation and commit to teaching in shortage areas or underserved communities.
     • Incentivize high-quality teachers to serve as mentors, offering professional recognition, stipends, or reduced course loads.
     • Fund induction programs that provide new teachers with sustained coaching, observation, and collaboration time during their first 2–3 years.
     • Improve compensation and working conditions in hard-to-staff schools to make them more attractive placements for experienced teachers.
4. Provide strong supports for students who may struggle with Algebra content.
   • One effective strategy is the “double-dose” Algebra model, in which all students take Algebra while those who need extra support receive an additional period of instruction to strengthen foundational skills.
5. Provide support for teachers to maintain high-quality instruction and differentiation to meet the diverse needs of students.
   • Students’ success in Algebra and beyond depends on the rigor and quality of instruction.
6. Ensure students are enrolled in Algebra when they are academically ready, giving access to those prepared for the coursework, but making sure those who would struggle the most and potentially fail are not enrolled in Algebra too early.
   • To decrease potential biases in placement, states and districts should consider requiring multiple sources of data to place students, as well as integration of data from assessments that are specifically intended to support Algebra placement decisions.
   • Collecting and analyzing data on who has access to Algebra, who succeeds, and who advances to higher math courses allows districts to monitor potential disparities. 

FULL WORKING PAPER

This report is based on the EdWorkingPaper “Socioeconomic and Racial Discrepancies in Algebra Access, Teacher, and Learning Experiences: Findings from the American Mathematics Educator Study” published in November 2024. The full research paper can be found here: https://edworkingpapers.com/ai24-1084.