EdWorkingPapers
Assessment Design and Course Grades: Evidence from Linked College Syllabi and Grade Records
… instructor fixed effects. In our preferred specification, a one-standard-deviation increase in the CR share is … assessment; syllabi … Cory Koedel … Hannah Putman … Kenneth A. Shores … Standards, Assessment, and Curriculum … …Grade inflation is of increasing concern on college campuses, yet little is known about the course-level practices associated with higher grades. We examine one such practice: assessment design. Using syllabi from more than 400 undergraduate courses at four public universities, we identify criterion-relevant (CR) assessments—which require comparable demonstrations of knowledge or skill that can… more →
Title I and IDEA as Complementary Federal Responses: Distinguishing Opportunity-Mediated and Opportunity-Independent Underachievement
… federal policy preserves these distinct roles and uses a simple framework and stylized simulation to show how … persistent underachievement; educational opportunity … Kenneth A. Shores … Joao M. Souto-Maior … Policy, Politics, and …Title I and IDEA are complementary federal responses to different sources of low achievement: each addresses needs that the other does not fully address. Title I targets opportunity-mediated underachievement, or low achievement linked to limited educational opportunity, while IDEA addresses persistent learning needs for which educational opportunity is not the primary explanation. This commentary… more →
Beyond School Police Officers: Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Exposure to a Fuller Range of School Security Personnel
… Data Collec-tion, education policy … Ismael G. Munoz … Kenneth A. Shores … Ericka Sherrell Weathers … S. Colby Woods … Student …Using data from the 2017–18 and 2020–21 Civil Rights Data Collection, we document dispari-ties in exposure to security personnel across US high schools and geographic levels. We dis-tinguish between law enforcement officers (LEOs) and school security guards (SSGs) to cap-ture variation in how security roles are deployed. Results show that Black and Hispanic stu-dents experience greater exposure… more →
School Finance in the US
… across places and student groups. … School Finance … Kenneth A. Shores … Hojung Lee … Policy, Politics, and Governance … K-12 …This chapter provides an overview of K-12 public school finance in the United States by tracing how funding systems changed over time, how they operate today, and how well they advance core policy goals. Section 2 documents the long-run shift from local property tax finance toward larger state and federal roles, driven by economic crises, legislation, and litigation. Section 3 describes the… more →
IDEA-Aligned Estimates of Racial Disproportionality in Special Education versus Conventional Approaches: A cautionary note on included-variable bias when achievement and socioeconomic status proxy for special education need
… Racial disproportionality in special education is a contested policy space. Federal oversight has traditionally … classification practices … Joao M. Souto-Maior … Kenneth A. Shores … Rachel E. Fish … Methods … K-12 Education … Equity … …Racial disproportionality in special education is a contested policy space. Federal oversight has traditionally focused on minority over-representation through IDEA’s significant disproportionality framework. However, observational studies report that Black students appear under-identified based on a canonical model that regresses special education receipt on race and controls, notably prior… more →
The Architecture of Expected Wage Gaps: Between- and Within-School Sources of Career Education Inequality
… entry by examining Career and Technical Education (CTE) as a key mechanism for sorting students into pathways with … inequality across and within schools. … Hojung Lee … Kenneth A. Shores … Arielle Lentz … Standards, Assessment, and …This study investigates how school-level variation contributes to social stratification even before labor market entry by examining Career and Technical Education (CTE) as a key mechanism for sorting students into pathways with unequal economic returns. Using Delaware administrative data and Bureau of Labor Statistics occupational wage data, we introduce “expected wage” as a measure to quantify… more →
"Send Them Home?" Rethinking What Public Education Owes to Flourishing Children
… lies with families rather than the state. I then develop a positive account grounded in two ideas. First, democratic … education; human potential; philosophy of education … Kenneth A. Shores … Student Well-Being … K-12 Education … Equity … …This essay asks what justice requires for children who are already thriving in school and argues that the dominant frameworks in educational philosophy do not answer the question. Priority, equality of opportunity, adequacy, and capabilities treat public education chiefly as redistribution to the disadvantaged and therefore offer no affirmative reason to continue educating students once… more →
A Critical Appraisal of the Evidence on Racial Disproportionality in Special Education
… This essay provides a two-pronged critical assessment of a subset of the … disproportionality, special education … Rachel E. Fish … Kenneth A. Shores … Joao M. Souto-Maior … Methods … K-12 Education … …This essay provides a two-pronged critical assessment of a subset of the literature on racial disproportionality in special education: that which aims to estimate racial disparities among otherwise similar children. This body of research has shown that Black students are less likely than comparable White students to receive special education, and has been interpreted by many to mean that current… more →
Making the Grade: Accounting for Course Selection in High School Transcripts with Item Response Theory
… transcript strength ( θ̂ ) and course difficulty on a common scale. IRT estimation orders courses plausibly by … Inequality, College Admissions, Item Response Theory … Kenneth A. Shores … Sanford R. Student … Methods … K-12 Education … …We apply Item Response Theory (IRT) to high-school transcript data, treating courses as items and grades as ordered responses, to estimate student transcript strength (θ̂) and course difficulty on a common scale. IRT estimation orders courses plausibly by difficulty, differentiates students with identical GPAs, correlates strongly with SAT scores, and demonstrates more than twice the SAT’s power… more →
The Correlated Proxy Problem: Why Control Variables can Obscure the Contribution of Selection Processes to Group-Level Inequality
… bias, assess selection-contributing inequality via a kitchen-sink approach, comparing selection outcomes of … controls; included-variable bias … Joao M. Souto-Maior … Kenneth A. Shores … Rachel E. Fish … Methods … K-12 Education … …Whether selection processes contribute to group-level disparities or merely reflect pre-existing inequalities is an important societal question. In the context of observational data, researchers, concerned about omitted-variable bias, assess selection-contributing inequality via a kitchen-sink approach, comparing selection outcomes of different-group individuals net of various characteristics. We… more →
Changes in Kindergarten Redshirting During the COVID-19 Pandemic
… "redshirting" in kindergarten, the practice of holding a child back for a year and enrolling them in kindergarten at … redshirting, school entry, COVID-19 … Rachel Fidel … Kenneth A. Shores … Anamarie Whitaker … Student Well-Being … Early …This study examined the impact of COVID-19 on academic "redshirting" in kindergarten, the practice of holding a child back for a year and enrolling them in kindergarten at age 6, using student-level data on all Delaware kindergarten students from fall 2014 through fall 2022. The rate of redshirting declined by 40% in fall 2020, then increased by 44% (relative to pre-pandemic baseline) in fall… more →
Misclassification of Career and Technical Education Concentrators: Analysis and Policy Recommendations
… Accountability … Yue Huang … Hojung Lee … Arielle Lentz … Kenneth A. Shores … Standards, Assessment, and Curriculum … K-12 …Career and Technical Education (CTE) prepares students for life beyond high school by providing practical labor skills, workforce credentials, and early post-secondary credits. States are required to report the number of CTE concentrators to receive federal Perkins funding, but systems of identifying students as concentrators vary among states. We analyzed two distinct concentrator identification… more →
Weighting for Progressivity? An Analysis of Implicit Tradeoffs Associated with Weighted Student Funding in Tennessee
… Tennessee’s weighted student funding formula. We propose a simple definition of progressivity based on the difference … A. Candelaria … Ishtiaque Fazlul … Cory Koedel … Kenneth A. Shores … Staffing, Finance, and Operations … K-12 Education … …We study the progressivity of state funding of school districts under Tennessee’s weighted student funding formula. We propose a simple definition of progressivity based on the difference in exposure to district per-pupil funding between poor and non-poor students. The realized progressivity of district funding in Tennessee is much smaller—only about 17 percent as large—as the formula weights… more →
The Distribution of School Resources in The United States: A Comparative Analysis Across Levels of Governance, Student Sub-groups, And Educational Resources
… class sizes, and teacher quality) intersect to represent a complex and comprehensive picture of K-12 educational … population. … education finance, educational inequality … Kenneth A. Shores … Hojung Lee … Elinor Williams … Staffing, Finance, …Levels of governance (the nation, states, and districts), student subgroups (racially and ethnically minoritized and economically disadvantaged students), and types of resources (expenditures, class sizes, and teacher quality) intersect to represent a complex and comprehensive picture of K-12 educational resource inequality. Drawing on multiple sources of the most recently available data, we… more →
What is a School Finance Reform? Uncovering the ubiquity and diversity of school finance reforms using a Bayesian changepoint estimator
… than the current literature has documented. Using a Bayesian changepoint estimator, we quantitatively identify … reforms … Christopher A. Candelaria … Shelby M. McNeill … Kenneth A. Shores … Policy, Politics, and Governance … K-12 Education … …School finance reforms are not well defined and are likely more prevalent than the current literature has documented. Using a Bayesian changepoint estimator, we quantitatively identify the years when state education revenues abruptly increased for each state between 1960 and 2008 and then document the state-specific events that gave rise to these changes. We find 108 instances of abrupt increases… more →
Fiscal Federalism and K-12 Education Funding: Policy Lessons from Two Educational Crises
… stimulus, inequality, Great Recession, Covid-19 Pandemic … Kenneth A. Shores … Matthew P. Steinberg … Staffing, Finance, and …We synthesize and critique federal fiscal policy during the Great Recession and Covid-19 pandemic. First, the amount of aid during both crises was inadequate to meet policy goals. Second, the mechanisms used to distribute funds was disconnected from policy goals and provided different levels of aid to districts with equivalent levels of economic disadvantage. Third, data tools are missing making… more →
Federal Stimulus Aid and School Finance: Lessons from the Great Recession
… per year following the Great Recession, particularly after a stimulus funding cliff when ARRA funding declined. Spending … Great Recession, economic downturn … J. Cameron Anglum … Kenneth A. Shores … Matthew P. Steinberg … Staffing, Finance, and …In 2009, the federal government passed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) to combat the effects of the Great Recession and state revenue shortfalls, directing over $97 billion to school districts. In this chapter, we draw lessons from this distribution of fiscal stimulus funding to inform future federal intervention in school finance during periods of economic downturn. We find… more →
Spending More on the Poor? A Comprehensive Summary of State-Specific Responses to School Finance Reforms from 1990–2014
… Sixty-seven school finance reforms (SFRs), a combination of court-ordered and legislative reforms, have … states with SFRs. … School Finance, Synthetic Controls … Kenneth A. Shores … Christopher A. Candelaria … Sarah E. Kabourek … …Sixty-seven school finance reforms (SFRs), a combination of court-ordered and legislative reforms, have taken place since 1990; however, there is little empirical evidence on the heterogeneity of SFR effects. In this study, we estimate the effects of SFRs on revenues and expenditures between 1990 and 2014 for 26 states. We find that, on average, per pupil spending increased, especially in low-… more →
Identifying Preferences for Equal College Access, Income, and Income Equality
… preferences, online experiments … Bernardo Lara E. … Kenneth A. Shores … Policy, Politics, and Governance … Post-secondary …Revealed preferences for equal college access may be due to beliefs that equal access increases societal income or income equality. To isolate preferences for those goods, we implement an online discrete choice experiment using social statistics generated from true variation among commuting zones. We find that, ceteris paribus, the average income that individuals are willing to sacrifice is (i… more →
Categorical Inequality in Black and White: Linking Disproportionality across Multiple Educational Outcomes
… education, Gifted and Talented, Advanced Placement … Kenneth A. Shores … Ha Eun Kim … Mela Still … Policy, Politics, and …We characterize the extent to which Black-White gaps for multiple educational outcomes are linked across school districts in the United States. Gaps in disciplinary action, grade-level retention, classification into special education and Gifted and Talented, and Advanced Placement course-taking are large in magnitude and correlated. Racial differences in family income and parent education are… more →
Get Real! Inflation Adjustments of Education Finance Data
… Consumer Price Index, Inflation Adjustment … Christopher A. Candelaria … Kenneth A. Shores … Staffing, Finance, and Operations … K-12 Education … …Use of education finance data is ubiquitous. Yet, because the academic calendar circumscribes two calendar years, researchers have linked the Consumer Price Index to three different dates: the Fall, Spring and academic fiscal years. We demonstrate that linking the CPI to these different academic year results in identifying different trends in U.S. educational spending during the Great Recession.… more →
Post-pandemic achievement recovery based on student characteristics and district-level policies
… levels of achievement. These findings contribute to a growing body of pandemic-era literature by examining … … Jessica Sperber Knott … Yu Bai … Jade M. Jenkins … Kenneth A. Dodge … Tyler W. Watts … Student Learning … K-12 Education …It is well-established that student achievement has declined dramatically since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, less is known how these patterns may vary by developmental timing of exposure to the pandemic and how district-level policies may have influenced student recovery. This descriptive study examined patterns of achievement across middle childhood during and after the COVID-19… more →
23 Years of State Pre-K Expansion: How States Balance Investment, Access, and Quality in the Modern Era
… states pursued widely varying expansion strategies. A 200% increase in pre-K enrollment did not reduce spending … … Mindy L. Rosengarten … Eunho Cha … Jade M. Jenkins … Kenneth A. Dodge … Allison Friedman-Kraus … W. Steven Barnett … Tyler …We describe state-funded pre-kindergarten (pre-K) expansion in the modern era from 2002 to 2024, documenting patterns of investment and reach. Although spending and enrollment increased substantially, states pursued widely varying expansion strategies. A 200% increase in pre-K enrollment did not reduce spending on enrolled children. Instead, we observed an average increase of 21% in per-pupil… more →
The Maternal Labor Market Effects of State Pre-K Funding
… policy for young children but has attracted attention as a potential lever to support maternal employment. This study … states and over time (academic years 2002-2024). Using a triple-difference design that compares mothers of pre-K-age … … Eunho Cha … Mindy L. Rosengarten … Tyler W. Watts … Kenneth A. Dodge … Jade M. Jenkins … Families and Communities …Public pre-kindergarten (pre-K) is primarily designed as an educational policy for young children but has attracted attention as a potential lever to support maternal employment. This study provides national evidence on the maternal labor market effects of state pre-K funding, exploiting variation in public investment across states and over time (academic years 2002-2024). Using a triple-… more →
The Long-Term Effect of North Carolina’s Pre-Kindergarten Program is Larger in School Districts with Lower Rates of Growth in Academic Achievement
… experience low-growth school environments—consistent with a dynamic substitutability hypothesis of combined effects. … … S. Peisner-Feinberg … Clara G. Muschkin … Helen F. Ladd … Kenneth A. Dodge … Student Learning … Early childhood … Early …Prior research has found that public investments in North Carolina’s pre-kindergarten program—NC Pre-K—generated positive effects on student reading and math achievement through eighth grade (Bai et al., 2020). This study examined whether the effect of NC Pre-K funding exposure is moderated by the educational environments children subsequently experience during elementary and middle school. The… more →
The Cobb Teaching & Learning System: An Initiative that Advances Educator Collaboration, Transformative Technology, and Real-Time Data Utilization
… The Cobb Teaching & Learning System (CTLS) is a digital learning initiative developed for and by the Cobb County School District (CCSD) in Georgia. CTLS became a crucial initiative used by the district to maintain student … own their transformative digital learning environment. … Kenneth K. Wong … Spencer Davis … Teacher and Leader …The Cobb Teaching & Learning System (CTLS) is a digital learning initiative developed for and by the Cobb County School District (CCSD) in Georgia. CTLS became a crucial initiative used by the district to maintain student academic progress during the COVID-19 pandemic. Adopting a mixed-methods approach, this case study seeks to analyze CTLS’s design and implementation, focusing on digital… more →
A Political Framework on How ESSA’s Devolved Federal Authority Influences State Policymaking Toward Educationally Disadvantaged Students
… disadvantaged students. This theoretical paper addresses a void in the policy implementation literature on why ESEA … ESSA presents. … James G. Cibulka … Martin E. Orland … Kenneth K. Wong … Policy, Politics, and Governance … K-12 … and organizations … Program and policy effects … A Political Framework on How ESSA’s Devolved Federal …The Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015 (ESSA) grants states unprecedented discretion in implementing many of the federal law’s requirements concerning the needs of the nation’s educationally disadvantaged students. This theoretical paper addresses a void in the policy implementation literature on why ESEA reform efforts have not been more effectively sustained. It synthesizes previous research on… more →
SEEDS of Early Learning: A Randomized Controlled Trial of an Early Literacy Teacher Professional Development Program
… professional development (PD) program on behalf of the Kenneth Rainin Foundation, in collaboration with Kidango. … language, literacy, and social-emotional outcomes. Using a clustered randomized controlled trial design, the study … Reading and literacy education … SEEDS of Early Learning: A Randomized Controlled Trial of an Early Literacy Teacher …NORC at the University of Chicago designed and implemented an impact evaluation of the SEEDS of Learning (SEEDS) professional development (PD) program on behalf of the Kenneth Rainin Foundation, in collaboration with Kidango. SEEDS of Learning is an evidence-based PD program that prepares early childhood educators to help children develop the social-emotional, language, and emergent literacy… more →