EdWorkingPapers
The Effects of Universal School Vouchers on Private School Tuition and Enrollment: A National Analysis
Three-quarters of a century after Milton Friedman popularized the idea, universal school vouchers have suddenly become a reality in 17 states since 2021. These new policies promise to be one of the most far-reaching reforms in U.S. education history. We make two contributions to understanding this policy. First, we provide a rich description of the private school sector nationally. We show that… more →
Investing in Human Capital During Wartime: Experimental Evidence from Ukraine
This paper provides insights into human capital investments during wartime by presenting evidence from three experiments of an online tutoring program for Ukrainian students amid Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. Conducted between early 2023 and mid-2024, the experiments reached nearly 10,000 students across all regions of Ukraine. The program offered three hours per week of small-group tutoring in… more →
Controlling For Measurement Error in Evaluation Models When Treatment Group Assignment is Based on Noisy Measures: Evaluation of an Achievement Gap-Closing Initiative
This paper develops new models to evaluate the effects of interventions and intervention-by-site heterogeneity when treatment group assignment is based on a fallible variable and the outcome of interest is determined in part by the corresponding true control variables (measured without error). The specific application concerns a school report card redesign in which school performance is evaluated… more →
Exploring Test-Optional Admissions Policies: Patterns in Applications, Enrollment, and Diversity During the COVID-19
The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted many aspects of higher education, including college admissions processes. Since 2020, numerous universities and colleges have adopted test-optional policies, allowing applicants to decide whether to submit standardized test scores. Although such policies have been in place at some institutions since 1998, research on their associations with student diversity and… more →
The impact of increasing school resources on peer victimization: Evidence from targeted funding on low-income families in Chile
While a large body of literature has examined the impact of school spending on academic outcomes, far less is known about its effect on students’ socioemotional development and school experiences. This study contributes to narrowing this gap by evaluating the impact of a nationwide school finance reform in Chile on peer victimization in high schools. The reform significantly increased school… more →
Labor supply, learning time, and the efficiency of school spending: Evidence from school finance reforms
Does school spending raise achievement? I show that effects, benchmarked by schools’ daily value added, are one-tenth to one-third as large as spending growth. Using school finance reforms for identification, I show that schools did not raise quality measured by value added. Instead, schools raised quantity measured by time diaries of staff and student hours, more than spending, with most hours… more →
Teacher Strikes and the Demobilization of Republican Voters
Protests can mobilize both supporters and opponents. Extant research suggests that disruptive protests are particularly likely to mobilize opponents, yet strikes—one of the most disruptive forms of protest—have been largely absent from this literature. We use an original dataset of 716 teacher strikes from 2007-2020 to examine the causal effects of teacher strikes on political participation.… more →
High School Effects on Civic Engagement
Preparing young people for the rights and responsibilities of citizenship is cited as a fundamental purpose of public education, yet little is known about whether or how K-12 schools impact civic engagement. Using education records, birth records, and national voting records for nine cohorts of ninth-grade students in Indiana, I estimate and assess the validity of high school effects on adult… more →
Neighborhood Effects on STEM Major Choice
This paper provides causal evidence that the neighborhoods where students grow up play a significant role in shaping their college major choices, focusing on STEM fields. Using administrative data from Texas and variation in the timing of school moves across counties and districts, we estimate the impact of neighborhood exposure on the likelihood of pursuing a STEM major. We find that students… more →
Bureaucracy and Burden: Understanding Take-up of a Need-Based Financial Aid Program
Social welfare programs, including college financial aid, often only reach a fraction of eligible beneficiaries. We examine this problem through the lens of Michigan’s Tuition Incentive Program (TIP), a state need-based grant aid program. We conduct a large-scale mixed-methods study using data on over one million Michigan public-school students, and 55 interviews with front-line administrators,… more →
Political Views and College Choices in a Polarized America
We examine the role of students’ political views in shaping college enrollment decisions in the United States. We hypothesize that students derive utility from attending institutions aligned with their political identities, which could reinforce demographic and regional disparities in educational attainment and reduce ideological diversity on campuses. Using four decades of survey data on college… more →
Who Wants to Be a Teacher in America?
Long-standing compositional disparities and more recent concerns about the health of the teaching profession highlight the need to increase our understanding of the pipeline into K–12 teaching. Leveraging data from 11.5 million college applicants from 2014–2025, we provide the most detailed description to date of who is interested in teaching in the United States. We document substantially lower… more →
"Send Them Home?" Rethinking What Public Education Owes to Flourishing Children
This essay asks what justice requires for children who are already thriving in school and argues that the dominant frameworks in educational philosophy do not answer the question. Priority, equality of opportunity, adequacy, and capabilities treat public education chiefly as redistribution to the disadvantaged and therefore offer no affirmative reason to continue educating students once… more →
Toward More Equitable Learning Environments: Insights from Digital Trace Data on Inclusive Instructional Design Features
Seminal teaching and learning theories converge on the critical role of instructional design in promoting equity and inclusivity in higher education. However, large-scale evidence remains limited as to which specific design features promote more equitable outcomes across diverse student populations in semester-long college courses. This study proposes a comprehensive and scalable framework to… more →
Financial Aid For Future Educators: Assessing A Federal Grant's Impact On Students' Postsecondary Decisions
Created in 2007, the federal TEACH grant program is a large federal financial aid program that seeks to attract postsecondary students to the teaching profession by providing financial assistance to help pay for a teaching degree. This paper describes the uptake and usage of the federal TEACH grant program across a large four-year public university system. Initial findings suggest that there is… more →
Comparing Machine Learning Methods for Estimating Heterogeneous Treatment Effects in Randomized Trials: A Comprehensive Simulation Study
This study compares 18 machine learning methods for estimating heterogeneous treatment effects in randomized controlled trials, using simulations calibrated to two large-scale educational experiments. We evaluate performance across continuous and binary outcomes with diverse and realistic treatment effect heterogeneity patterns, varying sample sizes, covariate complexities, and effect magnitudes… more →
Democracy For What and For Whom?: The Possibilities and Challenges of K-12 School Boards
Local school boards have historically played a major role in the functioning and character of US schools, providing fiscal oversight, shaping policy, and creating avenues for community voice, representation, and accountability. As such, school boards have regularly served as critical sites for political struggle and public discourse on a range of issues. Yet growing demands on schools, political… more →
Education and the Gender Gap in U.S. Presidential Elections
Women in the United States have outpaced men in both voter participation and educational attainment in recent decades. Since education is closely tied to political participation, we consider these trends in tandem and assess how much of the gender gap in voting is attributable to educational attainment as opposed to cognitive skills, noncognitive skills, college preparation behaviors, and… more →
The Sensitivity of Value-Added Estimates to Test Scoring Decisions
Value-Added Models (VAMs) are both common and controversial in education policy and accountability research. While the sensitivity of VAMs to model specification and covariate selection is well documented, the extent to which test scoring methods (e.g., mean scores vs. IRT-based scores) may affect VA estimates is less studied. We examine the sensitivity of VA estimates to scoring method using… more →
Examining the Relationship Between Randomization Strategies and Contamination in Higher Education Interventions
Randomized controlled trials are the reference method for causal inference, but field experiments in educational settings must balance statistical power with the risk of contamination. This study examines crossover and spillover contamination in a large-enrollment, in-person college course implementing an AI-enabled chatbot intervention. We compare two randomization approaches, individual-level… more →
Staff and Faculty Unionizations in Higher Education, 2007-2023
Labor organizing efforts grew following the Covid-19 pandemic in American higher education institutions. This research brief examines unionization trends at private colleges and universities from 2007 through 2023, revealing staff as the main force behind unionization attempts, followed by contingent faculty. SEIU plays a significant role in representing college and university employees. A… more →
Efficiency or Burnout? The Effects of Condensed Course Formats on Student Achievement in Community Colleges
Condensed courses—those that compress instructional content into a shorter time frame—are increasingly popular in higher education. While they offer greater flexibility, concerns remain that the accelerated pace may compromise learning. Using administrative data from a state community college system, we provide the first large-scale evidence of their effects on students’ immediate and downstream… more →
Causal Returns to Education
Using 182 estimates from 140 studies in 55 countries, this paper compares ordinary least squares (OLS) and instrumental variables (IV) estimates of the private returns to schooling. IV returns average 9.7 percent—38 percent higher than OLS—and exceed OLS in nearly 80 percent of cases, with the largest gaps in developing countries. These patterns align with theories of diminishing marginal returns… more →
The Many Paths to College Enrollment: Re-Conceptualizing the Transition to College
Traditional college choice models often fall short in capturing the complex paths that today’s student population takes to postsecondary enrollment. This paper identifies the limitations of the predominant frameworks, such as Hossler and Gallagher’s (1987) three-phase model, arguing that they reflect an outdated enrollment-management perspective, which fails to capture the experiences of many… more →
Reclaiming Educational Fraud and Waste: A Conceptual Framework to Locate the True Sources of Resource Leakage and Harm in The U.S. K-12 System
The recent dismantling of federal educational institutions has been legitimated under the banner of “eliminating fraud and waste.” In this paper, we reclaim these terms to locate the sources of potential fraud and waste in the U.S. K-12 education system through a novel conceptual framework that centers both structural components and the actions of educational actors. We posit that overdiagnosing… more →
Comparative Cost Analyses of Community College Student Success Initiatives
Limited resources hinder completion and exacerbate inequality in community colleges. Existing research identifies strategies that raise outcomes but leaves policymakers and campus leaders asking, “What do these interventions really cost—and can we afford it?” I answer these questions by presenting the first set of comparative cost analyses of community college success initiatives to date. I… more →
The Fiscal and Resource Effects of Enrollment Increases and Decreases on American Public School Districts
Public school enrollment has decreased over the past few years and is forecast to continue decreasing for the foreseeable future. Experts and educators are concerned about the fiscal and resource effects of these enrollment declines. Using data on all public school districts from 1998 to 2019, we estimate the effects of enrollment changes on revenues and expenditures per pupil and a variety of… more →
Item-Level Heterogeneity in Value Added Models: Implications for Reliability, Cross-Study Comparability, and Effect Sizes
Value added models (VAMs) attempt to estimate the causal effects of teachers and schools on student test scores. We apply Generalizability Theory to show how estimated VA effects depend upon the selection of test items. Standard VAMs estimate causal effects on the items that are included on the test. Generalizability demands consideration of how estimates would differ had the test included… more →
Measuring Elementary School Teachers' Knowledge of Teaching Vocabulary
Teacher Knowledge in the field of literacy has become a priority across the United States, with many states passing legislation requiring that all teachers receive adequate training on the Science of Reading. One essential component of literacy development and text comprehension is vocabulary acquisition. This study examines the psychometric properties of items from the Teacher Knowledge of… more →
Leveraging Modern Machine Learning to Improve Early Warning Systems and Reduce Chronic Absenteeism in Early Childhood
This study focuses on improving the predictive power of early warning systems (EWSs) to decrease chronic absenteeism in early childhood. Using a demographically diverse sample of students followed from PreK to third grade in Boston Public Schools (N=6,698), we demonstrate how and why two modern machine learning algorithms—the Synthetic Minority Oversampling Technique (SMOTE) and Extreme Gradient… more →
Parent Perspectives on School Choice: Experimental Evidence from a Nationally Representative Sample
Parental attitudes and perspectives of student “success” will likely drive their educational choices, whether residentially assigned district public schools, alternative public schools, private schools, or homeschooling. However, little research has examined the importance of these attitudes on choice or how these attitudes may vary across parent characteristics. In this study, we conducted an… more →
Unequal Foundations: Racial Disparities in School Building Conditions in New York State
School infrastructure is a critical yet often overlooked factor shaping student health, learning, and well-being. This study examines racial disparities in public school building conditions across New York State using data from building inspections linked to demographic and fiscal data. Schools serving more students of color are significantly more likely to have poor overall conditions,… more →
To The Mountaintop: Transforming Educational Equity as a School Leader
School leaders, particularly principals, can be true difference makers. Having a strong school leader can shape productive learning environments, give high-quality teachers the support they need, and influence student outcomes. This literature review synthesizes research on the role that school leaders, specifically principals, play in addressing inequities and promoting student success in… more →
From Funds to Frameworks: How States Operationalize Title II Education Funding
This study employs a document analysis of Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) plans from 2017 to 2022 to examine Title II, Part A, implementation across all states. We analyzed state-level fund allocation, leadership development activities, and discrepancies between planned and actual spending. Results reveal substantial heterogeneity in state approaches: 23.5% made Title II-A-specific plan… more →
Leveraging IEPs to Understand Special Education Services at Scale
7.5 million (15%) U.S. public school students have Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) that guide $14 billion in special education services. However, the content of IEPs remains unexplored, primarily because they have been historically inaccessible to researchers at scale. In this study, we develop a coding taxonomy to categorize IEP services from digital IEP records for an entire state. We… more →
Out-of-School Learning: Subtitling vs. Dubbing and the Acquisition of Foreign-Language Skills
The development of English-language skills, a near necessity in today’s global economy, is heavily influenced by historical national decisions about whether to subtitle or dub TV content. While prior studies of language acquisition have focused on schools, we show the overwhelming influence of out-of-school learning. We identify the causal effect of subtitling in a difference-in-differences… more →
Asset-Based Implementation of Structured Adaptations in an Online Third-Grade Content Literacy Intervention
Scaling up evidence-based educational interventions presents challenges, particularly in adapting to new contexts while maintaining fidelity. Structured adaptations that integrate the strengths of experimental science (high fidelity) and improvement science (high adaptation) represent a novel design framework for supporting the equitable implementation of research-based practices and programs.… more →
From Rural Schools to City Factories: Assessing the Quality of Chinese Rural Schools
The changing pattern of quality in China’s rural schools across time and province is extracted from the differential labor market earnings of rural migrant workers. Variations in rates of return to years of schooling across migrant workers working in the same urban labor market but having different sites of basic education provide for direct estimation of provincial school quality. Corroborating… more →
Exploring Claims of Critical Race Theory, Divisive Topics, and Indoctrination in the Classroom
Critical race theory (CRT) and claims of political indoctrination in K-12 classrooms are at the forefront of the ongoing culture wars surrounding public education. Despite a wave of legislative action targeting CRT-related instruction, little systematic evidence documents the extent to which critics’ claims have merit. Using a nationally representative survey of American high school students, we… more →
Who Scars the Easiest? College Quality and the Effects of Graduating into a Recession
Graduating from college into a recession is associated with earnings losses, but less is known about how these effects vary across colleges. Using restricted-use data from the National Survey of College Graduates, we study how the effects of graduating into worse economic conditions vary over college quality in the context of the Great Recession. We find that earnings losses are concentrated… more →
Measuring “Noncognitive” Skills at Scale: Building Longitudinal Student Behavior Composites Using Administrative Data
“Noncognitive” skills, especially student behavior, are critical predictors of academic and life outcomes. However, measuring student behavior at scale remains challenging, particularly for longitudinal research. This study uses a demographically diverse sample of students followed from kindergarten to eighth grade in the Boston Public Schools (N=12,232) to examine trade-offs between two… more →
The Effects of Early Childhood Science Educational Interventions on Children’s Science Achievement: A Meta-Analysis of Classroom-Based Studies
The importance of providing children with more robust opportunities to access high-quality science instruction is a widely recognized challenge. Unfortunately, science instruction is often neglected in the earliest school grades, meaning that many young children face opportunity gaps to learning science. We present the results of a meta-analysis of experimental and quasiexperimental research of… more →
Education and Climate Change: Synthesizing the Evidence to Guide Future Research
The effects of climate change are becoming increasingly visible across all aspects of the U.S. PreK-12 education system. Schools are both vulnerable to climate change and uniquely positioned to be part of the solution. We synthesize interdisciplinary research and data to illustrate the bi-directional relationship between schools and our changing climate. Drawing on this evidence, we map out a… more →
The effects of third-grade retention on multilingual students: A gateway or a gatekeeper?
This paper estimates the effect of test-based grade retention on multilingual students classified as English Learners (ML-ELs). This policy could provide an opportunity for ML-ELs to develop English language proficiency and master academic content or put them at increased risk of worse academic and labor market outcomes. I use a regression discontinuity design leveraging Texas’s test-based grade… more →
Tabling Debate: How Local Officials Use Agenda Control to Stifle Conflict
Public officials influence policymaking by deciding which items receive attention and action — and which do not. Accounts from national legislatures typically explain agenda control in terms of party leadership and discipline. But, do politicians exert agenda control outside highly professionalized legislatures? We bring the agenda control discussion to U.S. school boards, which lack strong party… more →
Social Emotional Learning, Student Attendance, and Chronic Absenteeism in Pre- and Post-Pandemic Periods
We develop and implement a quasi-experimental panel data model to address the relationships between social emotional learning competencies (SEL) and annual student attendance in the pre- and post-pandemic periods. Although panel data models tend to focus on changes over time in outcomes and predictors, we develop a model that decomposes the effects of SEL into stable and transitory components.… more →
Empirical Analysis of STEM Faculty Productivity: Using NbClust and Logistic Regression to Explore Interactions Among Faculty Teaching and Research Productivity Metrics, Demographic, and Disciplinary Characteristics
This study investigates the nexus between research and teaching productivity among STEM faculty at a public research-intensive university, analyzing data from 553 faculty members across four STEM disciplines: Biological Sciences, Engineering, Information and Computer Sciences, and Physical Sciences. Through the combined application of cluster analysis using the NbClust package and logistic… more →
The Value of School Social Climate Information: Evidence from Chicago Housing Transactions
In this paper, I investigate how publicizing school social climate information is capitalized into the housing market and how it affects the sorting of homebuyers from different economic backgrounds. I first provide descriptive evidence on the novelty of school climate relative to other school characteristics. Next, using a plausibly exogenous shock of school climate information in Chicago, I… more →
High School Equivalency Credentialing and Post-Secondary Success: Pre-Registered Quasi-Experimental Evidence from the GED® Test
For the over 24 million American adults who do not hold a traditional high school diploma, high school equivalency (HSE) credentials represent the primary “second-chance” pathway to many careers or educational opportunities. This project uses current, representative data to assess whether, how, and for whom HSE credentials promote post-secondary success. Examining post-secondary outcomes in a… more →
Identifying Indicators to Support Educational Attainment for Different Groups of English Learners in High School
This study examines a broad array of potential indicators for early warning and college readiness indicator systems for different subgroups of English Learners in high school. Using data from 2008 through 2021 from the Chicago Public Schools, the study follows cohorts of students from eighth grade through college graduation, using logistic regression models to run exploratory analyses, and… more →